In the face of much skepticism, energy efficiency—conservation—had turned out to be a much more vigorous contributor to the energy mix than most had anticipated.
A STABLE MIDDLE EAST
Mideast politics, which so often bedeviled security of supply, was no longer a threat. In the decade that followed the Gulf crisis, it seemed that the Middle East was more stable and that oil crises and disruptions were things of the past. No longer was there a Soviet Union to meddle in regional politics, and the outcome of the Gulf crisis and the weight of the United States in world affairs looked like an almost sure guarantee of stability.
The Palestinian Liberation Organization realized that it had driven itself into a dead end by supporting Saddam in the Gulf crisis, and, in the process, alienating many of the Arab countries that were its financial benefactors. It quickly reoriented itself, and swift progress thereupon followed in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. In Washington, D.C., in September 1993, Yasser Arafat, chairman of the Palestinian National Authority, and Israel’s prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin, signed the Oslo Accords, which laid out the route to a two-state solution to that long conflict. And then, standing in front of President Clinton with the White House as a backdrop, they did what would have seemed inconceivable three years earlier—shook hands. The following year, they shared the Nobel Peace Prize along with Israel’s foreign minister, Shimon Peres. All this was a positive and powerful indicator of the world that seemed to be ahead. It might not have happened had Saddam not gone to war.
As for Saddam Hussein himself, he no longer seemed to be going anywhere.
CONTAINMENT
In 1991 the coalition’s forces had stopped 90 miles short of Baghdad. The coalition had come together under the authority of the United Nations to eject Saddam from Kuwait; it had no mandate to remove Saddam and change the regime. Nor was there any desire to engage in the potentially bloody urban warfare that would be required for a final push. As it was, the television images of the destruction of the Iraqi army, and the backlash those images were engendering, were in themselves a further reason to call things to a halt—what has been dubbed the “CNN effect.” Beyond all that, it was widely assumed that aggrieved elements of the Iraqi military would do what was expected—launch a coup—and that Saddam’s days were numbered. But, such was his ruthlessness and iron control, that, contrary to expectations, he held tightly to power after the war.
Yet Saddam’s position was much reduced. For Iraq was now hemmed in by a program of inspections, military force, and sanctions that amounted to what has been called “classic containment,” evoking the policy that had checked Soviet expansion during the Cold War. In addition, some efforts were mounted over the next few years to support Saddam’s opponents in toppling him, but that all ended in failure. Under the administration of Bill Clinton, the containment policy became more explicit. It also became conjoined with what now was described as “dual containment”—of Iran along with Iraq.
In principle, U.N. weapons inspectors could range freely around Iraq, looking for the elements that could go into weapons of mass destruction—colloquially known as WMD. In practice, obstructions were constantly put in the inspectors’ way. There was only one moment of surprising cooperation: In 1995 the head of Iraq’s unconventional weapons program, who happened to be Saddam’s son-in-law, defected to Jordan. The regime panicked, fearing what he might tell. Trying to preempt any revelations, Baghdad suddenly released half a million documents (which had been hidden in a chicken coop) that detailed production of a variety of biological weapons. But after Saddam lured his son-in-law back to Iraq (in order to have him killed), obstruction once again returned as the norm.4
Still, the days of Saddam’s capacity to try to control world oil had passed. His continuing impact on oil came mainly in the form of his ability to manipulate prices at the margins. In the first few years after the Gulf War, with exports not permitted, petroleum output fell precipitously. In 1995 the United Nations established the Oil-for-Food Programme, which allowed Iraq to sell a defined amount of oil. Half of the revenues went for essentials, like medicine and food. Before Saddam seized power, Iraq had been an exporter of food to Europe and even shipped dates to the United States. But, under Saddam, agriculture had suffered, and oil exports provided the funding to import the food the country now required. The