The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Vio - By Steven Pinker Page 0,431

2001; North, Wallis, & Weingast, 2009; Otterbein, 2004; Steckel & Wallis, 2009; Tilly, 1985.

29. Effeminate Chambri: Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 152.

30. Dirty tricks against anthropologists: Freeman, 1999; Pinker, 2002, chap. 6; Dreger, 2011; C. C. Mann, “Chagnon critics overstepped bounds, historian says,” Science, Dec. 11, 2009.

31. Myths of harmless primitive warfare: Keeley, 1996.

32. “little to fight about”: Eckhardt, 1992, p. 1.

33. Pre-state violence: Keeley, 1996; LeBlanc, 2003; Gat, 2006; Van der Dennen, 1995; Thayer, 2004; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996.

34. Raids in primitive warfare: Chagnon, 1996; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996; LeBlanc, 2003; Thayer, 2004; Wrangham & Peterson, 1996.

35. Primitive weaponry: Keeley, 1996.

36. “[they] delight to torment men”: Quoted in Schechter, 2005, p. 2.

37. Yanomamö raid: Valero & Biocca, 1970.

38. Wathaurung raid: Morgan, 1852/1979, pp. 43–44.

39. Iñupiaq raid: Burch, 2005, p. 110.

40. Cannibalism: Fernández-Jalvo et al., 1996; Gibbons, 1997.

41. Prion diseases: E. Pennisi, “Cannibalism and prion disease may have been rampant in ancient humans,” Science, Apr. 11, 2003, pp. 227–28.

42. Maori warrior taunt: A. Vayda’s Maori warfare (1960), quoted in Keeley, 1996, p. 100.

43. Motives for primitive warfare: Chagnon, 1988; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996; Wiessner, 2006.

44. Yanomamö man “tired of fighting”: Quoted in Wilson, 1978, pp. 119–20.

45. Universality of revenge: Daly & Wilson, 1988; McCullough, 2008.

46. Body counts in nonstate societies: Bowles, 2009; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996.

47. Forensic archaeology: Keeley, 1996; McCall & Shields, 2007; Steckel & Wallis, 2009; Thorpe, 2003; Walker, 2001.

48. Death by violence in prehistoric societies: Bowles, 2009; Keeley, 1996.

49. Death by violence in hunter-gatherers: Bowles, 2009.

50. Death by violence in hunter-horticulturalists and tribal farmers: Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996.

51. Death by violence in state societies: Keeley, 1996.

52. Rates of death in war: The 3 percent estimate comes from Wright’s sixteen-hundred-page A study of war: Wright, 1942, p. 245. The first edition was completed in November 1941, before World War II’s most destructive years. The figure was unchanged, however, in the 1965 revision (Wright, 1942/1965, p. 245), and in the 1964 abridgment (Wright, 1942/1964, p. 60), though the latter mentions Dresden, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki in the same paragraph. I assume the unchanged estimate was intentional, and that the additional world war deaths were offset by the billion people added to the world during the more fecund and less lethal postwar decades.

53. 20th-century U.S. and Europe estimate: Keeley, 1996, from Harris, 1975.

54. Battle deaths are summed for the years 1900 through 1945 inclusive from the three Correlates of War datasets (Inter-State, Extrastate, and Intrastate), using the larger figure of the two columns “State Deaths” and “Total Deaths” (Sarkees, 2000; http://www.correlatesofwar.org), together with the geometric mean of the “Battle Dead Low” and “Battle Dead High” estimates for the years 1946 to 2000 inclusive from the PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset (Gleditsch, Wallensteen, Eriksson, Sollenberg, & Strand, 2002; Lacina & Gleditsch, 2005; http://www.prio.no/Data/).

55. 20th-century battle deaths: The denominator of 6 billion deaths comes from an estimate that 12 billion people lived in the 20th century (Mueller, 2004b, p. 193) and that about 5.75 billion were alive at the century’s end.

56. 180 million violent deaths: White, in press; the 3 percent figure comes from using 6.25 billion as the estimate of the total number of deaths; see note 55.

57. Iraq and Afghanistan casualties: Iraq Coalition Casualty Count, www.icasualties.org.

58. War battle death rate: Human Security Report Project, 2008, p. 29. The worldwide death estimate of 56.5 million deaths is from the World Health Organization. The twentyfold multiplier is based on the WHO estimate of 310,000 “war-related deaths” in 2000, the most recent year available in the World report on violence and health. See Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002, p. 10.

59. Death by violence in pre-Columbian nonstate and state societies: Steckel & Wallis, 2009.

60. Homicide rates in modern Europe: Eisner, 2001.

61. United States homicide rates in the 1970s and 1980s: Daly & Wilson, 1988.

62. Aztecs: Keeley, 1996, table 6.1, p. 195.

63. Death rates for France, Russia, Germany, and Japan: Keeley, 1996, table 6.1, p. 195; 20th-century figures are pro-rated for missing years.

64. Deaths in American wars: Leland & Oboroceanu, 2010, “Total Deaths” column. Population figures are from U.S. Census, http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/hist_stats.html.

65. All violent 20th-century deaths: Based on 180 million deaths estimated by White, in press, and an average annual world population for the 20th century of 3 billion.

66. 2005 battle deaths: United States: www.icasualties.org. World: UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset, Human Security Report Project, 2007; see Human Security Centre, 2005, based in part on data from Gleditsch et al., 2002, and Lacina & Gleditsch, 2005.

67. Prevalence of war among hunter-gatherers: Divale, 1972;