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and Review 14, no. 2 (2007): 225–29.

“hypercorrection effect”: T. S. Eich et al., “The Hypercorrection Effect in Younger and Older Adults,” Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition 20, no. 5 (2013): 511–21; J. Metcalfe et al., “Neural Correlates of People’s Hypercorrection of Their False Beliefs,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 24, no. 7 (2012): 1571–83.

Oberon and Macduff: N. Kornell and H. S. Terrace, “The Generation Effect in Monkeys,” Psychological Science 18, no. 8 (2007): 682–85.

“Like life”: N. Kornell et al., “Retrieval Attempts Enhance Learning, but Retrieval Success (Versus Failure) Does Not Matter,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 41, no. 1 (2015): 283–94.

Spanish vocabulary learners: H. P. Bahrick and E. Phelps, “Retention of Spanish Vocabulary over 8 Years,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13, no. 2 (1987): 344–49.

Iowa State researchers read: L. L. Jacoby and W. H. Bartz, “Rehearsal and Transfer to LTM,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11 (1972): 561–65.

“produce misleadingly high levels”: N. J. Cepeda et al., “Spacing Effects in Learning,” Psychological Science 19, no. 11 (2008): 1095–1102.

In 2007, the U.S. Department of Education: H. Pashler et al., “Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning,” National Center for Education Research, 2007.

an extraordinarily unique study: S. E. Carrell and J. E. West, “Does Professor Quality Matter?,” Journal of Political Economy 118, no. 3 (2010): 409–32.

A similar study was conducted at Italy’s Bocconi University: M. Braga et al., “Evaluating Students’ Evaluations of Professors,” Economics of Education Review 41 (2014): 71–88.

“desirable difficulties”: R. A. Bjork, “Institutional Impediments to Effective Training,” in Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance, ed. D. Druckman and R. A. Bjork (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1994), 295–306.

“Above all, the most basic message”: C. M. Clark and R. A. Bjork, “When and Why Introducing Difficulties and Errors Can Enhance Instruction,” in Applying the Science of Learning in Education, ed. V. A. Benassi et al. (Society for the Teaching of Psychology, 2014 [ebook]).

said in national surveys: C. Rampell, “Actually, Public Education is Getting Better, Not Worse,” Washington Post, September 18, 2014.

School has not gotten worse; “jobs that pay well”: G. Duncan and R. J. Murnane, Restoring Opportunity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2014 [Kindle ebook]).

In a study using college math problems: D. Rohrer and K. Taylor, “The Shuffling of Mathematics Problems Improves Learning,” Instructional Science 35 (2007): 481–98.

butterfly species identification to psychological-disorder diagnosis: M. S. Birnbaum et al., “Why Interleaving Enhances Inductive Learning,” Memory and Cognition 41 (2013): 392–402.

naval air defense simulations: C. L. Holladay and M.A. Quiñones, “Practice Variability and Transfer of Training,” Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 6 (2003): 1094–1103.

In one of Kornell and Bjork’s interleaving studies, 80 percent of students: N. Kornell and R. A. Bjork, “Learning Concepts and Categories: Is Spacing the ‘Enemy of Induction’?,” Psychological Science 19, no. 6 (2008): 585–92.

a particular left-hand jump across fifteen keys: M. Bangert et al., “When Less of the Same Is More: Benefits of Variability of Practice in Pianists,” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Performance Science (2013): 117–22.

O’Neal should practice from a foot in front: Bjork makes this suggestion in Daniel Coyle’s The Talent Code (New York: Bantam, 2009).

hallmark of expert problem solving: See, for example: M.T.H. Chi et al., “Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices,” Cognitive Science 5, no. 2 (1981): 121–52; and J. F. Voss et al., “Individual Differences in the Solving of Social Science Problems,” in Individual Differences in Cognition, vol. 1, ed. R. F. Dillon and R. R. Schmeck (New York: Academic Press, 1983).

reviewed sixty-seven early childhood education programs: D. Bailey et al., “Persistence and Fadeout in Impacts of Child and Adolescent Interventions,” Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 10, no. 1 (2017): 7–39.

The motor-skill equivalent: S. G. Paris, “Reinterpreting the Development of Reading Skills,” Reading Research Quarterly 40, no. 2 (2005): 184–202.

CHAPTER 5: THINKING OUTSIDE EXPERIENCE

Giordano Bruno: A. A. Martinez, “Giordano Bruno and the Heresy of Many Worlds,” Annals of Science 73, no. 4 (2016): 345–74.

Johannes Kepler inherited: Sources that give excellent background on the worldviews that Kepler inherited, and his transformative analogies, are: D. Gentner et al., “Analogical Reasoning and Conceptual Change: A Case Study of Johannes Kepler,” Journal of the Learning Sciences 6, no. 1 (1997): 3–40; D. Gentner, “Analogy in Scientific Discovery: The Case of Johannes Kepler,” in Model-Based Reasoning: Science, Technology, Values, ed. L. Magnani and N. J. Nersessian (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2002), 21–39; D. Gentner et al., “Analogy and Creativity in the Works of Johannes Kepler,” in Creative Thought: