place. Melissa Guerrero-Witt, Wendy Wood, and Leona Tam, “Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits,” PsycEXTRA Dataset 88, no. 6 (2005), doi:10.1037/e529412014–144.
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Follow-up research revealed that 35 percent of service members: Lee N. Robins et al., “Vietnam Veterans Three Years after Vietnam: How Our Study Changed Our View of Heroin,” American Journal on Addictions 19, no. 3 (2010), doi:10.1111/j.1521–0391.2010.00046.x.
the creation of the Special Action Office of Drug Abuse Prevention: “Excerpts from President’s Message on Drug Abuse Control,” New York Times, June 18, 1971, https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/18/archives/excerpts-from-presidents-mes....
nine out of ten soldiers who used heroin in Vietnam: Lee N. Robins, Darlene H. Davis, and David N. Nurco, “How Permanent Was Vietnam Drug Addiction?” American Journal of Public Health 64, no. 12 (suppl.) (1974), doi:10.2105/ajph.64.12_suppl.38.
90 percent of heroin users become re-addicted: Bobby P. Smyth et al., “Lapse and Relapse following Inpatient Treatment of Opiate Dependence,” Irish Medical Journal 103, no. 6 (June 2010).
“disciplined” people are better at structuring their lives: Wilhelm Hofmann et al., “Everyday Temptations: An Experience Sampling Study on How People Control Their Desires,” PsycEXTRA Dataset 102, no. 6 (2012), doi:10.1037/e634112013–146.
It’s easier to practice self-restraint when you don’t have to use it: “Our prototypical model of self-control is angel on one side and devil on the other, and they battle it out. . . . We tend to think of people with strong willpower as people who are able to fight this battle effectively. Actually, the people who are really good at self-control never have these battles in the first place.” For more, see Brian Resnick, “The Myth of Self-Control,” Vox, November 24, 2016, https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2016/11/3/13486940/self-control-p....
A habit that has been encoded in the mind is ready to be used: Wendy Wood and Dennis Rünger, “Psychology of Habit,” Annual Review of Psychology 67, no. 1 (2016), doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414–033417.
The cues were still internalized: “The Biology of Motivation and Habits: Why We Drop the Ball,” Therapist Uncensored), 20:00, http://www.therapistuncensored.com/biology-of-motivation-habits, accessed June 8, 2018.
Shaming obese people with weight-loss presentations: Sarah E. Jackson, Rebecca J. Beeken, and Jane Wardle, “Perceived Weight Discrimination and Changes in Weight, Waist Circumference, and Weight Status,” Obesity, 2014, doi:10.1002/oby.20891.
Showing pictures of blackened lungs to smokers: Kelly McGonigal, The Upside of Stress: Why Stress Is Good for You, and How to Get Good at It (New York: Avery, 2016), xv.
showing addicts a picture of cocaine for just thirty-three milliseconds: Fran Smith, “How Science Is Unlocking the Secrets of Addiction,” National Geographic, September 2017, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/09/the-addicted-brain.
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Niko Tinbergen performed a series of experiments: Nikolaas Tinbergen, The Herring Gull’s World (London: Collins, 1953); “Nikolaas Tinbergen,” New World Encyclopedia, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nikolaas_Tinbergen, last modified September 30, 2016.
the goose will pull any nearby round object: James L. Gould, Ethology: The Mechanisms and Evolution of Behavior (New York: Norton, 1982), 36–41.
the modern food industry relies on stretching: Steven Witherly, Why Humans Like Junk Food (New York: IUniverse, 2007).
Nearly every food in a bag: “Tweaking Tastes and Creating Cravings,” 60 Minutes, November 27, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7Wh3uq1yTc.
French fries . . . are a potent combination: Steven Witherly, Why Humans Like Junk Food (New York: IUniverse, 2007).
such strategies enable food scientists to find the “bliss point”: Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us (London: Allen, 2014).
“We’ve gotten too good at pushing our own buttons”: This quote originally appeared in Stephan Guyenet, “Why Are Some People ‘Carboholics’?” July 26, 2017, http://www.stephanguyenet.com/why-are-some-people-carboholics. The adapted version is given with permission granted in an email exchange with the author in April 2018.
The importance of dopamine: “The importance of dopamine was discovered by accident. In 1954, James Olds and Peter Milner, two neuroscientists at McGill University, decided to implant an electrode deep into the center of a rat’s brain. The precise placement of the electrode was largely happenstance; at the time, the geography of the mind remained a mystery. But Olds and Milner got lucky. They inserted the needle right next to the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), a part of the brain that generates pleasurable feelings. Whenever you eat a piece of chocolate cake, or listen to a favorite pop song, or watch your favorite team win the World Series, it is your NAcc that helps you feel so happy. But Olds and Milner quickly discovered that too much pleasure can be fatal. They placed the electrodes in several rodents’ brains and then ran a small current into each wire, making the NAccs continually excited. The scientists noticed that the rodents lost interest in everything. They stopped eating and drinking. All courtship behavior ceased. The rats would just huddle in the corners of their cages, transfixed by their bliss. Within days, all of